Research

Campbell Leaper is Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Santa Cruz. His research program investigates the developmental and social psychology of gender and sexism across the lifespan. 

Professor Leaper's research considers how gender is defined through social interaction patterns in families, peer groups, schools, the media, friendships, and romantic relationships. Based on their gender, children are often provided different opportunities to practice particular social and cognitive skills. Gender differences in experience, in turn, are viewed as contributing to the development of different expectations, social identities, preferences, and competencies. In these ways, gender inequalities are perpetuated. 

In addition, Professor Leaper hosts the Gender Development Research Conference in San Francisco every two years. This event is co-chaired with his colleague, Professor Carol Martin. The conference is attended by leading researchers and graduate students in the field. 

As summarized in the sections below, the major topics in Professor Leaper’s research are:

  • Correlates and consequences of sexism
  • Gender socialization and academic achievement
  • Gender and close relationships
  • Gender and language
  • Representations of gender in the media
  • Intersectionality of gender and race/ethnicity
  • Reviews of theory and research

For a listing of his publications, please go to the Publications page.

Correlates and consequences of sexism.

Professor Leaper, with his colleagues and students, has conducted numerous studies of sexism in children, adolescents, and young adults. Many of Professor Leaper’s recent and current studies examine people’s endorsement of traditional gender ideologies about masculinity and femininity as well as their hostile and benevolent sexist attitudes. 

Examples of recent studies:

  • sexist ideologies in relation to adolescents' future work and family selves (Farkas & Leaper, 2016)
  • heterosexual adults' endorsement of dating double standards (Paynter & Leaper, 2016)
  • undergraduate women's experiences with sexual harassment and gender bias in relation to their STEM motivation (Leaper & Starr, 2019).
  • heterosexual dating couples' experienced relationship qualities (Leaper, Gutierrez, & Farkas, 2022)
  • adults' retrospective accounts of family members' gendered messages about heterosexual relations in relation to their gender and ethnic background (Gutierrez, Halim, & Leaper, & 2022)
  • Mexican-heritage women's ethnic identity, cultural engagement, and gender attitudes (Gutierrez & Leaper, 2022)
  • meta-analysis of studies linking hostile and benevolent sexism to attitudes and behaviors supportive of violence against women (Gutierrez & Leaper, 2023)

Gender biases and academic achievement.

Many of Professor Leaper’s projects have examined individual and social factors related to gender-related variations in academic achievement. In many of these investigations, the focus has been on girls’ and women’s motivation and achievement in subjects related to STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math). Women’s underrepresentation in many STEM fields is important because they are among the highest-paying professions--and therefore the gender gap in STEM contributes to the overall gender inequity in pay. In addition to girls' and women's success in STEM, Professor Leaper is interested in how rigid gender-typing can undermine boys’ and young men’s academic achievement. 

Examples of recent studies:

  • individual factors (interpersonal goals and stereotype endorsement) and interpersonal experiences (sexism or encouragement) were related to STEM motivation in high school girls (Starr & Leaper, 2019) and undergraduate women (Leaper & Starr, 2019). 
  • the concordance (vs discordance) between students' endorsement of STEM stereotypes (such as people in STEM are nerds or geniuses) and their self-concepts, and whether concordance (vs. discordance) predicts their STEM motivation (Starr & Leaper, under review).
  • gender-related variations in parent-child talk during informal science-learning settings (Shirefley & Leaper, 2022)
  • implicit and explicit stereotyping about science/technology and undergraduates' self-concepts and STEM motivation (Starr & Leaper, 2023)
  •  

Gender and close relationships.

Professor Leaper's research program has also included investigations into ways that gender may affect close relationships. This work has included studies of friendships, romantic relationships, and family relationships. 

Examples of recent studies: 

  • heterosexual undergraduates' endorsement dating double standards and endorsement of sexist attitudes (Paynter & Leaper, 2016)
  • gender-related variations in self-disclosure, gossip, and decision-making in same-gender and cross-gender friendships (Leaper, 2019)
  • young adults' recalled messages about gender from family members in relation to their gender, ethnic background, and benevolent sexism (Gutierrez, Halim, & Leaper, 2022) 
  • heterosexual young adults' hostile and benevolent sexist attitudes in relation to their current romantic relationship qualities (Leaper, Gutierrez, & Farkas, 2022)

 

Gender and language.

A long-time interest of Professor Leapers is how language is used to define and maintain gender divisions. This work was an outgrowth of his earliest work in graduate school at UCLA studying the pragmatic aspects of children’s language development (see “Bio” page). Many of his studies analyzing communication patterns are based on a two-dimensional model of language and social interaction based on the degrees that messages simultaneously vary in self-assertion and affiliation. His studies in this area have examined gender-related variations in talk between parents and young children as well as conversations between young adult friends.

Examples of recent studies: 

  • review of ways that gendered language contributes to sexist thinking (Bigler & Leaper, 2015)
  • contextual variations in young adults' uses of affiliative and assertive conversational strategies during self-disclosure and negotiation in same-gender and mixed-gender friendships (Leaper, 2019)
  • variations in parents' science talk with their young children based on parent gender and child gender (Shirefley & Leaper, 2022) 

 

Representations of gender in the media.

Professor Leaper is additionally concerned with ways that the mass media perpetuates and reinforces many gender stereotypes. This work has included content analyses of children's television programs, the impact of gender representations in children's books on mothers' comments, and how media use was related to young adults' endorsement of double standards. 

Examples of recent studies:

  • college students' media use and their endorsement of gender double standards (Paynter & Leaper, 2016)
  • a content analysis of gender representation in television programs for preschool-age children (Walsh & Leaper, 2019) 

 

Intersectionality.

The construct of intersectionality emphasizes that people’s experiences and opportunities are affected by the intersection of their multiple social identities. Some of these include their gender, ethnicity, race, class, and sexual orientation. Many of Professor Leaper’s investigations consider the intersection of gender and ethnicity/race in relation to gender development. 

Some examples of recent studies:

  • the intersection of gender and racial/ethnic identities in relation to adults' self-esteem (Wilson & Leaper, 2016)
  • recalled family messages about gender and young adults' current gender attitudes varied in relation to their gender and ethnic backgrounds (Gutierrez, Halim, & Leaper, 2022)
  • the intersection of gender, ethnicity, and cultural practices in relation to young adults' endorsement of ambivalent sexist attitudes and other traditional gender ideologies (Gutierrez & Leaper, 2022).
  • the relations of Black and Latinx undergraduates' experiences with outgroup discrimination and ingroup marginalization to self-esteem and the role of ethnic-racial identity dimensions (Wilson & Leaper, 2022)
  • observing same-gender and same-race STEM role models in relation to undergraduates' STEM-related stereotypes, identity, and motivation (Starr & Leaper, 2023)

Reviews of theory and research.

Professor Leaper maintains an ongoing interest in synthesizing our knowledge about gender. He is the author of numerous review chapters and meta-analyses on the psychology of gender (which are often co-authored with his graduate students or colleagues). A few recent examples are described below.

Narrative reviews of theory and research. Professor Leaper recently published a comprehensive review of theory and research on gender development for the prestigious Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science (Leaper, 2015). Also, he presented a systematic review of research on gender similarities and differences in language during childhood and adulthood for the Oxford Handbook of Language and Social Psychology (Leaper, 2014). In addition, Leaper and a former graduate student completed a chapter reviewing theory and research on the psychology of boys for the APA Handbook of Men and Masculinity (Farkas & Leaper, 2016). Recently, he published a systematic and scoping review on the development and consequences of childhood gender segregation appearing in Gender and Sexuality Development (Leaper, 2022). 

Also, with colleague Professor Christia Brown, Professor Leaper conducted two integrative reviews. In one, they surveyed research on sexism in schools for Advances in Child Development and Behavior: The Role of Gender in Educational Contexts and Outcomes (Leaper & Brown, 2014). In another, they highlighted major ways that sexism affects children and adolescents in Child Development Perspectives (Leaper & Brown, 2018). 

Meta-analytic reviews. Professor Leaper has conducted several meta-analytic reviews (see Publications). This method involves statistical summaries of results across several studies. Several of his meta-analyses have tested if and when there are average gender differences in language use. These include meta-analyses of gender-related variations in parents’ speech to children (with Kristin Anderson), children’s talkativeness and use of assertive and affiliative language (with T. Evan Smith), adults’ talkativeness and use of assertive and affiliative language (with Melanie Ayres), adults’ interruptions (with Kristin Anderson), adults’ use of tentative speech (with Rachael Robnett), and ambivalent sexism and violence-toward-women supportive attitudes (with Brenda Gutierrez).

Another meta-analysis (with Harriet Tenenbaum) examined the association between parents’ and children’s gender self-concepts and gender attitudes. Also, a meta-analysis (with Timea Farkas) considered if having an older brother or older sister was related to gender-typing.

Plea for increased theoretical integration. Professor Leaper has advocated for more integration across theories in developmental psychology. In a chapter appearing in Advances in Child Development and Behavior, Leaper (2011) identified some possible ways that different theories could be bridged, while also explaining reasons why this is often difficult to achieve in psychology. In a recent paper appearing in Gender and Sexuality Development, Professor Leaper (2022) proposed an integrative developmental systems model to understand variations in gender identity development in the context of peer groups.